Friday 22 January 2016

Kawasaki P-1 Maritime Patrol Aircraft : Japan's Brand New Submarine Hunter

 
 

The Kawasaki P-1 maritime patrol aircraft of the Japan Maritime Self Defense Force.
 JMSDF Photo.


Introduction


From the same folks who brought you the legendary Kawasaki Z-1 in 1972 that revolutionalised the motorcycle industry comes a spanking new submarine hunter? It's not surprising since Japan's Kawasaki Heavy Industries ( KHI ) is a huge industrial conglomerate made up of multiple divisions and disciplines. KHI's product portfolio includes anything from the Soryu class Submarine, bulk carriers, LNG carriers, the T-4 Advanced Jet Trainer, Boeing 787 ( Joint Production ), helicopters, space rockets and space station components, motorcycles and ATV, jet skis, high speed rail, industrial robots .... the list goes on and on. KHI is known as 川崎重工業 or Kawasaki Jukogyo in Japanese.



A legend was born : The 1972 Kawasaki Z-1, air-cooled,
4 stroke, 4 cylinders, 903cc DOHC super bike.
This was what catapulted Kawasaki into the global lime light. Photo : KHI



Maritime Patrol Aircraft : A Brief History



A maritime patrol aircraft ( MPA ) is a fixed-wing surveillance aircraft that is designed to operate over open water for extended duration in sea patrol duties, in particular anti-submarine, anti-ship and search and rescue roles. Its history can be traced as far back as World War I, when bombers and floatplanes were converted into patrol aircrafts to counter the German U-boat menace. These early generation MPAs were frequently armed with machine guns, bombs and depth charges.

The requirement for high endurance aircrafts to patrol vast expanses of oceans meant that by WWII, many MPAs were converted from long range bombers ( Consolidated B-24 Liberator ) or airliners ( Focke-Wulf Fw-200 Condor ). Some like the Consolidated PBY Catalina amphibious plane were purpose-built. The emergence of air to surface vessel radars during that era was one of the most significant technological advancement that would change the nature of naval warfare. MPAs armed with high resolution centimetric radars like the ASV III can easily detect small objects like the periscope or snorkel of a submerged submarine making them highly effective in anti-submarine warfare ( ASW ).

The immediate post-WWII period ushered in the jet era, and MPAs continued to evolve in operational capabilities with new technologies like sonobuoys and the magnetic anomaly detector ( MAD ), though due to their unique operational requirement of high loiter time at low speed and low altitude, they remained largely piston engine or turboprop driven. The Lockheed P-2V Neptune from which the Japanese variant the P-2J was based on was a typical example from that time. And yes, the P-2J was license-produced by Kawasaki.

During the Cold War, the emerging threat of ballistic missile carrying submarines raining death and destruction onto large population centres with their multiple nuclear warheads from thousands of miles away meant that MPAs continue to be relevant and in demand. Many of the MPAs currently in service throughout the world like the Lockheed P-3C Orion, the Tupolev Tu-142 Bear and the Ilyushin Il-38 May are products of that era. It was also during that time jet-powered MPAs began to appear, the first to enter service being the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod MR1.

Today, most MPAs continue the tradition of having airframes derived from proven civilian platforms, especially jetliners. The Boeing P-8A Poseidon based on the venerable 737-800 is a typical example. In the future we would undoubtedly have MPAs in the form of unmanned aerial vehicles like the soon to be operational Northrop Grumman MQ-4C Triton developed under the Broad Area Maritime Surveillance programme.


Japan's MPA Fleet


When Japan's Maritime Self-Defense Force ( JMSDF ) was formed in 1954, it operated obsolete WWII aircraft donated by the United States which included 17 Lockheed PV-2 Harpoon patrol bombers and 20 Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers.

From 1956, 60 Lockheed P-2V7 Neptune MPA were added to the fleet, and starting from 1957, 60 Grumman S-2F Tracker ASW aircraft. The Japanese loved the P-2V7 so much that when the time came to have them replaced by the more advanced but expensive Lockheed P-3A Orion, they opted instead to develop an improved version, the P-2V7 Kai ( 改 - kai in Japanese means upgrade or to improve ), later licence produced and designated P-2J. A total of 83 P-2J were produced and they were operational between 1971 to 1994.

The P-2J was eventually replaced by the P-3C, 98 of which was licence produced between 1978 and 1997. Five P-3C had been converted to the OP-3C reconnaissance version and the remaining 93 P-3C are currently the backbone of the JMSDF MPA fleet. Add to that number another 5 EP-3, 1 UP-3C and 3 UP-3D, the grand total is 107 making Japan the largest P-3 operator after the United States.  They will ultimately be replaced by the P-1 of which 70 aircrafts have been planned. The JMSDF classifies the P-3C and the P-1 as Fixed Wing Patrol Aircraft (  固定翼哨戒機 Koteiyoku Shokaiki )




A Kawasaki P-3C Orion based at Atsugi Air Base, Kanagawa Prefecture
flies overland with Mount Fuji in the background.
The JMSDF currently has 93 P-3C in its inventory. Photo : JMSDF 



The UP-3D of the 91st Fleet Air Sqn is an ESM-trainer aircraft
 for the ships of the JMSDF. Its mission is similar to the EP-3J of the USN.
 This particular aircraft with serial number 9163 is the last P-3 ever produced.
Notice the lack of a MAD boom. Photo JMSDF 



The Future MPA P-X Programme


Shortly after the last P-3C ( actually a UP-3D variant, see photo above ) was delivered to the JMSDF by KHI on 1st Feb 2000, marking the end of a production run that lasted for 38 years, the Japanese were already planning for its successor. The Cold War had ended and in the United States, Lockheed's next generation MPA programme, the P-7 Long Range Air ASW Capable Aircraft ( LRAACA ), failed to materialise due to budgetary problems and after incurring huge cost overruns. Existing European alternatives like the United Kingdom's Nimrod MR2 did not meet Japanese requirements. Eventually the Japanese decided that they would have to develop their own MPA.

The P-X future MPA programme was thus initiated in 2001 by the Japanese Ministry of Defence concurrently with the next generation transport aircraft C-X programme to replace the C-130 Hercules and the C-1. These two developments were to be managed as a single project and Kawasaki was appointed the main contractor. The P-X and C-X shared structural components and sub-systems and utilized commercial off the shelf products to save on development and production costs.

First flight for the P-X prototype, by then re-designated the XP-1, took place on 28th Sep 2007. By March 2010 four XP-1 had been delivered to the MOD for testing and trials. They were introduced into service in 2013 as the Kawasaki P-1 to gradually replace JMSDF's ageing P-3C Orion. They were supposed to have attained full operational capability by Sep 2015.



The XP-1 Prototype in Technical Research and Development Institute (TRDI)
 colours at Atsugi Air Base, April 2011. Photo : Wikipaedia



The Kawasaki P1



The Kawasaki P-1 at RIAT 2015, RAF Fairford. Photo : Wikipaedia



The P-1 is unique among all the various modern maritime patrol aircraft as it one of a few that is completely designed from the ground up and not adapted from some bomber or commercial airliner. That means every single part is purpose designed and purpose built. Also, it was originally created for just one customer, the JMSDF, since the post-war Constitution of Japan forbade the export of weapons and weapon systems until very recently. As such, throughout its development and even as it is being deployed in active service, very few outside the defense circles have heard about this mysterious Japanese multi-mission maritime aircraft.


General Characteristics


The P-1 has the appearance and size of a 90 - 100 seat regional jet. It has a length of 38m, height of 12m and a wingspan of 35.4m making it significantly bigger than the P-3C and only marginally smaller than the P-8A which it is frequently compared with. The full complement comprises of 2 flight crew and 11 mission crew. Its maximum take-off weight is 79700kg or 176000lbs. Maximum speed is said to be 996km/h ( 538 knots ) while the cruising speed is 833 km/h ( 450 knots ). The P-1's maximum range is 8000km ( 4320 nm ) and the maximum operational ceiling is 13520m ( 44200 ft ).


Compare and contrast : the Boeing P-8A and the Kawasaki P-1 side by side at
Naval Air Facility Atsugi. USN Photo



Fuselage and Wings


The P-1 has an aerodynamic profile most suited for low speed and low altitude flight. It has a relatively long wing span with the leading edge swept back at 25 degrees but an almost straight trailing edge. A large wing area of  170m² generates more lift, decreases stall speed and increases agility.

Part of the fuselage is made of light weight composite material like carbon fiber.  KHI is responsible for fabricating the horizontal stabilisers, Fuji Heavy Industries the main wings and the vertical stabilisers, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries the mid and rear portions of the fuselage and Sumitomo Precision Products the landing gears.


Power Plant


Unlike its turboprop powered predecessor, the P-1 is powered by four IHI F7-10 high bypass turbofan engines. Japan's IHI Corporation developed the F-7-10 specifically for the P-1, using metal alloys that are corrosion resistant in salt environments. Sound absorbing panels are also used to lower the acoustic signature of the engines, achieving a sound level 5 to 10 dB below the P-3C's Allison T-56-A-14 turboprops. The F7-10 turbofan has a bypass ratio of 8.2:1 and each delivers a maximum thrust of 60kN or 13500lbs. The jet engines enables the P-1 to achieve a greater maximum speed, a higher operating ceiling, a longer range and carry a heavier load compared with the P-3C.


Having four engines instead of two is advantageous for MPAs as they frequently fly over open bodies of water at remote locations where airfields may not be readily available for emergency landings in case of engine failure. In addition, MPAs often have to execute their combat missions at low altitudes where bird strikes can be common. A single engine failure in a twin engine MPA like the P-8A would probably have necessitated a turn around whereas an MPA with four engines could still continue its mission with one engine shutdown. If fact, P-3C jockeys are known to deliberately shut down one or two of the Orion's four turboprop engines when on-station to reduce fuel consumption and increase on-station time. The P-1 with four turbofans could supposedly do the same but it would be suicidal to try that on a P-8A.




The IHI F7-10 Turbofan on the P-1 aircraft number 5506 taken at
 Iwakuni Air Base on 14th Sep 2014. Photo : Wikipedia


Postero-lateral view of the IHI F7-10 on the same aircraft as above. Photo : Wikipaedia 


Frontal view of the IHI F7-10 on the same aircraft as above. Photo : Wikipaedia

In addition, the P-1 has a Honeywell 131-9 Auxiliary Power Unit ( APU ) installed in the fuselage forward of the horizontal stabilizer to avoid interference with the MAD apparatus in the rear.


Avionics


Unlike the mostly analogue instruments of the P-3C, the P-1 has, in common with the Kawasaki C-2 transport, a modern digital " glass cockpit " with 6 large LCD multifunction displays and 2 sets of Head-Up Displays ( HUD ). The cockpit also features huge glass windows reflecting the Japanese emphasis on low altitude visual searches.


The cockpit windows are huge. Seen also are two HUDs and
the multi-function LCD displays. Image : Mainichi Shimbun




External view of the P-1's large windows. Image : Mainichi Shimbun




Flight Control


You have heard of fly-by-wire where flight control of an inherently aerodynamically unstable design is achieved by onboard computers continuously micro-adjusting the control surfaces. The P-1 is a generation ahead, being the first production aircraft to feature " fly-by-light " ( FBL ) where flight control commands are transmitted via optical fibre to the actuators. This decreases the risk of electromagnetic interference with the multitude of electronic sensors onboard. FBL also has the advantage of reducing the weight of the installed wiring and reduce power consumption. The technology had been extensively tested on the UP-3C before being implemented on the P-1.


Radar


The P-1 is equipped with the HPS-106 X-Band Active Electronically Scanned Array ( AESA ) radar system jointly developed by Toshiba and the Technical Research and Development Institute ( TRDI ) of the Japanese Defence Ministry. Consisting of 4 arrays, one mounted in the nose, two side-looking panels below the cockpit area and another in the tail, the HPS-106 has a constant 360 degree coverage. It can be used in multiple modes including surface search, air search, navigational and meteorological, synthetic aperture and inverse synthetic aperture. An inverse synthetic aperture radar ( ISAR ) utilizes the motion of the target to create a high resolution 2D image that can allow for threat identification.


The HPS-106 side-looking array is housed beneath this panel just below the cockpit. Wikipaedia Photo



Electro-Optical / Infrared


The P-1 features the Fujitsu HAQ-2 EO/IR suite mounted on a ball-like turret aft of the nose cone for tracking and examining surface targets. It consists of a Forward Looking Infrared ( FLIR ) device for thermal imaging, night vision and navigation, as well as cameras for capturing images in the visible light and near-infrared spectrum.


The Electro-Optical / FLIR Turret which can be retracted and
stowed within the fuselage when not in use. JMSDF Photo


Magnetic Anomaly Detector


The HSQ-102 magnetic anomaly detector housed in the sting-like MAD boom at the rear of the P-1 is a licence produced version of the Canadian CAE AN/ASQ-508(v) by Mitsubishi Electric. CAE is the world leader in the design, manufacture and integration of MAD systems. They have been designing MAD systems for more than 40 years and had delivered more than 2000 MAD systems to the military worldwide. The AN/ASQ-508(v) is also known as the Advanced Integrated MAD System ( AIMS ) and consists of a highly sensitive magnetometer with associated electronics mounted in the tail area of an aircraft to minimize magnetic interference. It detects the variations in the earth's magnetic field caused by the presence of metallic objects in the vicinity like a submerged submarine. The detection range is in the region of 1200m, meaning the MAD will work best with the aircraft flying at low altitudes and at low speeds, both of which the P-1 excels in. One of the key differences between the P-1 and the P-8 is that the P-8 does not have a MAD system.


Close-up view of the P-1's MAD boom which houses the HSQ-102 MAD system. Photo : Wikipaedia 


The " stinger " or MAD boom places the magnetometer as far away
from the aircraft as possible to minimize self interference.
Photo : Sunburn1979 via Creativecommons


Acoustic System and Sonobuoys


The P-1 can carry 30 pre-loaded sonobuoys and another 60 in racks in the cabin for reloading. The Acoustic Processor HQA-7 is manufactured by NEC. Other components of the acoustic system includes the  HRQ-1 Sonobuoy Receiver, HQH-106 Acoustic Data Recorder and the HAS-107 Sonobuoy Controller.



Sonobuoy launcher can be seen in the under-fuselage in this photo of the P-1 at RIAT 2015.
Wikipaedia Photo.


Sonobuoy Launcher Close-up. Image : Mainichi Shimbun

Sonobuoy rack with capacity for 96 sonobuoys. Image : Mainichi Shimbun

Rotary sonobuoy launcher. Image : Mainichi Shimbun


Acoustic workstation. Image : Mainichi Shimbun



Command and Control


The P-1 has a Combat Command System designated the HYQ-3 by Toshiba which is basically an onboard combat information processor, some sort of artificial intelligence that can assist the mission commander in planning for the best respond to an encountered threat, like delivering the optimal firing solution on an enemy submarine based on the combined information collected by all the plane's sensors and sensors from other friendly platforms nearby.

 

Communications


The P-1 is fitted with the HRC-124 UHF/VHF Radio and the HRC-123 satellite communications equipment made by Mitsubishi Electric.


Tactical Data Link


Equipped with Link 16 compatible MIDS-LVT terminal, the P-1 can share targeting and any other information with similarly equipped aircrafts like the F-15J, P-3C, E-767 AWACS, E-2C AEW, MH-60 naval helicopters, F-35 JSF, and surface vessels like the JMSDF's Aegis destroyers.


IFF


The HPX-105 Identification Friend or Foe system is installed with the two sets of four N-AT-347 IFF antennae mounted in front of the cockpit wind screen and at the under-fuselage area.


4 IFF antennae clearly seen above nose cone. Image : Mainichi Shimbun



Armaments


The P-1 has a total of 8 hard points under its wings which can be used to carry air to surface missiles like the AGM-84 Harpoon, the AGM-65 Maverick and the indigenously developed ASM-1C. These pylons, also known as the BRU-47/A Bomb Release Unit are rated to carry up to 2000lbs of ordnance each.

It also has an internal bomb bay with an additional 8 hard points which can be loaded with bombs, mines, depth charges and light weight torpedoes including the Mk46, the Japanese Type 97 ( G-RX4 ) and the latest Type 12 ( G-RX5 ). Up to 9000kg or 20000lbs of ordnance could be carried.


Weapon pylons ( BRU-47/A bomb release unit ) under the port wing
 and the internal bomb bay whose outline you can see just aft of the front landing gear
( with 3 red-tipped N-AS-331 and 1 yellow-tipped N-AS-330 antennae for the HRQ-1 sonobuoy receiver ).
 Wikipaedia photo.

XP-1 prototype fires AGM-65 Maverick missile in 2012. Photo : TRDI



The Type 97 ( G-RX4 ) 324mm light weight torpedo. Inert version displayed. Photo : Wikipaedia

 

Self-Protection System 


The P-1 is equipped with the Mitsubishi Electric HLQ-9 self-protection suite which includes the missile approach warning system ( MAWS ) and the radar warning receiver ( RWR ), accompanied by the usual dispensers for flare and chaff.


P-1 dispensing flares against heat seeking missiles 18th Oct 2015. Japanese MOD photo.

An Electronic Support Measures ( ESM ) suite, the Mitsubishi Electric HLR-109B is installed. You can see the ESM flaring which is the prominent bulge on top of the fuselage slightly behind the cockpit. The ESM suite detects and classifies enemy radar emissions and gives the P-1 a secondary role as an  Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance ( ISR ) platform.

Close-up of the ESM flaring just above and behind the cockpit windows. Photo : Wikipaedia


Air-to-Air Refueling


All indications seem to point towards the fact that unlike the Boeing P-8A or the Kawasaki C-2 with which it shares some common components, the P-1 does not have a probe or receptacle for accepting fuel transfers midair. It is highly unlikely that the meticulous Japanese designers would have overlooked this feature. Most probably it was intentionally omitted as a cost saving move. Further more, with a range of 8000km, perhaps the JMSDF chose to live without air-to-air refueling.


P-1 Variants


Just like its predecessor the P-3C Orion which had spawned many variants to serve different combat missions, the P-1 can potentially be similarly modified into different hardware configurations :

UP-1 : Utility / multi-purpose aircraft that can be used as a test bed for systems and equipment or in a supportive role as a training platform.

EP-1 : Signals Intelligence ( SIGINT ), Electronic Intelligence ( ELINT ) platform.

OP-1 : Observation / Visual Imaging platform.

AEW :  To replace the ageing E-2C Hawkeye airborne early warning aircraft. But the US had just approved the sale of four E-2D to Japan last year, so AEW conversion is currently less urgent or likely.

AIRBOSS : As an Advanced InfraRed Ballistic Missile Observation Sensor System platform. Obviously with Dear Leader as one's neighbour, the capability to detect ICBM / IRBM / SLBM launches in a timely manner can be a matter of utmost importance.

In Jun 2015, the first XP-1 prototype number 5501 had been converted to the UP-1 configuration with the aircraft number correspondingly reassigned 9501.



A UP-3C and a P-1 flying in formation. JMSDF Photo

 

Numbers Ordered


Based on Japanese Defence Ministry annual budget reports of the past few years, these are the current number of P-1 ordered and on order.

FY2008  4   units  ¥ 67.9billion
FY2010  1   unit    ¥ 21.1billion
FY2011  3   units  ¥ 54.4billion
FY2013  2   units  ¥ 40.9billion
FY2014  3   units  ¥ 59.4billion
FY2015  20 units  ¥ 350.4billion

Total P-1 ordered so far is 33 aircrafts, excluding the four XP-1 prototypes. The first 13 units from FY2008 to FY2014 are probably the low rate initial production ( LRIP ) tranches. Mass production really starts with FY2015's 20 unit order. All operational P-1s are deployed at Atsugi Air Base in Kanagawa Prefecture.



Exporting the P-1



Japanese weapon systems have traditionally been expensive due to the fact that they cannot be exported and so production runs are relatively small and cater to only the local defense agencies. Economy of scale can hardly be achieved with a such a small captive market. That has changed since last year when Prime Minister Abe tweaked the Constitution, paving the way for future weapon exports. And Kawasaki has been hard at work trying to sell the P-1 overseas.

Among the potential clients was the United Kingdom, a maritime nation whom in 2010 foolishly retired its Nimrod MR2 MPAs and then abruptly cancelled its replacement, the MRA.4 who's development was by then almost near completion, leaving them with absolutely no MPAs. In July 2015, the P-1 made its first overseas public appearance at the Royal International Air Tattoo ( RIAT ) at RAF Fairford, Gloucestershire, England, in an attempt to generate British interest in the aircraft. If successful, the deal could advance defence co-operation between the two countries and could be worth up to one billion dollars. Two aircrafts flew over to Fairford, number 5504 and 5507, one for static display and one for flight demonstration. You can watch and hear the flight demo here. After the airshow the P-1 went on to Djibouti to carry out hot weather tests before returning to Atsugi Air Base. The P-1's appearance at RIAT was well received and brought the exposure and generated the awareness it needed to compete successfully on the international stage. Hopefully we can begin to see the P-1 at more international airshows in the near future. Unfortunately for the Japanese, on 23rd Nov 2015 the UK announced their intention to buy nine P-8A Poseidon as part of the Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015, without going through any tender or competition.


Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii 7th Feb 2015. Private visit, private flight :
then COMPACFLT Adm Harry B. Harris Jr. walks with JMSDF Cmdr. Kazutaka Sugimoto
 following a flight on a Kawasaki P-1. USN Photo



However, apart from the UK, there are many other navies worldwide that operate the ageing P-3C Orion and they would soon need a replacement. So Kawasaki should in theory have no shortage of potential clients. The main competition would be the Boeing P-8A as they both have very similar capabilities, not surprising as they were intended to be replacements for the same aircraft. Already, Australia, a major P-3C ( AP-3C ) operator has selected the P-8A as its next generation MPA at a cost of A$4 billion for a total of 8 planes with support facilities. So has India, which will operate the P-8I. Still, at an estimated US$250 million per plane, the P-8A is significantly more expensive than the P-1 which costs half as much at $150 million ( based on Japanese MOD figures, FY 2015 acquisition of 20 P-1 at ¥350.4billion ). This would make the P-1 a value buy for current P-3C operators as well as any MPA operator looking to renew their fleet.



P-1 for Singapore?


Why not? The Republic of Singapore Air Force ( RSAF ) currently operates a fleet of 5 Fokker F-50 Enforcer II MPAs. These aircrafts have been in service since 1994 and are close to their end-of-life. Upgrading these MPAs would be challenging as the maker, Dutch aviation company Fokker had gone into receivership in 1996 and is now defunct. RSAF had apparently requested to inspect ex-USN P-3Cs in storage in Dec 2010 which meant it was considering the refurbished Orion as replacement for the F-50. Now, five years on, the P-1 has completed its development and has emerged a viable option since it is technically more advanced than the venerable P-3C and is a whole lot cheaper than the P-8A whose capability it mostly matches.



The Fokker F-50 Enforcer II MPA of RSAF's 121 Squadron. Photo credit on pic.

How much cheaper is it to restore a mothballed P-3C to active duty with modernized avionics and 15000 hours of life extension compared to buying a new build P-1 is anybody's guess, but I'll pick the a P-1 over the P-3 anytime.


P-1 and the State of the Japanese Defence Industry



For the past 70 years, the Japanese defence industry had lead a frustrating existence where restricted by the Constitution, their quality products were procured in anaemic quantities only for the domestic market. This dated, self-imposed restriction had finally been lifted paving the way for major arms export. Already, we are seeing Japanese defence companies participating in international trade shows for the first time.

The Kawasaki P-1 is a highly capable maritime patrol aircraft and a worthy successor to the P-3C. Its success in Japan had probably been guaranteed even before the maiden flight of the first prototype. Currently the planned procurement is for 70 aircrafts to replace 107 P-3C of all variants. Funding for the first 33 P-1 had already been disbursed / approved. The next logical milestone would be to secure export customers so that production volume can be ramped up further and unit cost can come down. Together with the AIP capable Soryu class submarine, and the ShinMaywa US-2 amphibious search and rescue plane, the P-1 maritime patrol aircraft would spearhead the Japanese effort to break into the international arms market. There would hopefully be some successes soon.










































Monday 28 December 2015

F-16SG? Upgrading Singapore's Fighting Falcons



 The F-16 Fighting Falcon





Maiden flight of the F-16V with the Northrop Grumman
APG-83 SABR AESA radar on 16th Oct 2015
 over the skies of Fort Worth, Texas. Lockheed Martin Photo


The F-16 Fighting Falcon is arguably America's most successful fighter aircraft of the modern era. It was conceptualized in the late sixties as a light weight, super-sonic, air superiority day fighter with a high thrust to weight ratio, good range and good agility, lessons learnt from the Vietnam War. It saw first flight in 1974 and was first introduced into active service with the United States Air Force ( USAF ) in 1978. Since then, incremental upgrades to the F-16's radar, engines and avionics have transformed the Falcon from a day interceptor into an all-weather multi-role combat aircraft capable of anything from ground attack to SEAD/DEAD to air superiority missions.




The General Dynamics YF-16 : the Mother of All F-16s on an
aerial refueling mission Mar 1975.
In 1993 the Aerospace Division of General Dynamics was sold to Lockheed.
 Photo : Lockheed Martin


The F-16 is currently in active service in not just the USAF but also the Air National Guard (ANG), the Air Force Reserve Command, the USAF Thunderbirds aerial demonstration team and in the US Navy's Naval Strike And Air Warfare Center (NSAWC) as aggressor aircrafts.



F-16s of the Texas Air National Guard flying in formation
in a photo dated 28th Oct 2011.
Texas is also known as the Lone Star State. Lockheed Martin Photo.





An F-16 of the USAF Thunderbirds aerial demonstration team
banks right over the Rocky Mountains after being refueled
in-flight by a KC-135 Stratotanker 21st May 2015. U.S. Air Force photo





An F-16 Fighting Falcon assigned to the 64th Aggressor Squadron
 takes off during Red Flag 14-1 on Jan. 28, 2014,
at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada. Aggressor aircrafts
 have the most exotic paint schemes to create the
visual resemblance of enemy aircrafts. U.S. Air Force photo


In addition, the F-16 had been exported to 28 other foreign operators including Israel (362 aircrafts of various models and variants), Turkey (270), Egypt (220), the Netherlands (213), South Korea (180), Greece (170), Belgium (160), Taiwan (150), Morocco, the UAE, Oman, Iraq, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand, Pakistan, Poland, Romania and a few others. Along the way, it had also spawned a Japanese variant, the Mitsubishi F-2, which looked like an oversized Falcon, not to mention being overpriced too!

To date, a total of 4550 F-16s had been built and the production lines at Lockheed Martin are still open. There are sufficient orders to keep them busy till at least the year 2017.

Viper or Falcon?


Every American military aircraft has an official name, but pilots and ground crew often have other ideas. The Lockheed Martin F-16 is officially known as the Fighting Falcon, but it has always been nicknamed the Viper, apparently by the folks at Hill Air Force Base, Utah, home to the very first operational F-16 unit of the USAF. The story goes that the F-16 does resemble a cobra when viewed from the end of the runway ( see picture below ), but the Cobra name had already been claimed by the Northrop YF-17, predecessor of the F/A-18 Hornet fighter, and so the Viper it was.

The Viper nickname predates the official USAF given name of Fighting Falcon, which was the winning entry of the Name-the-Plane Contest organized by the Air Force in 1976. That name was submitted by TSgt. Joseph A. Kurdell of the 1st TFW, MacDill AFB, Florida. The official USAF naming ceremony however, only took place on 21st July 1980 at where else but Hill AFB!

 
With some imagination, the F-16 taking off or landing does
 actually resemble a cobra rearing up and ready to strike.
As the cobra nickname has already been taken, the viper name stuck.
 A USAF F-16 Fighting Falcon lands after a Red Flag 15-2 sortie
March 11, 2015, at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada.
The F-16 is assigned to the 421st Fighter Squadron
 at Hill AFB, Utah. U.S. Air Force photo


The Variants

Like most fighter jets, the F-16 comes in 2 primary variants, single-seat or twin-seat. Single-seat fighters are usually used for air superiority roles whereas the twin-seat fighters carry an additional weapon systems officer (WSO) aka wizzo which is advantageous in a ground attack situation. The earliest batches of the F-16 had the A suffix to indicate a single-seat version and a B suffix to denote a twin-seat version. Later batches carry the C suffix for single-seat and the D suffix for twin-seat. The latest batch have correspondingly the E and the F suffixes.

Over the decades since its introduction, the F-16 had constantly evolved to enable it to take on new combat roles and deliver new weapon systems. The variants are further differentiated by their block number, bigger number indicating more advanced versions. For example the initial F-16A and F-16Bs evolved from Block 1 to 5, 10,15, 15OCU and 20. This was followed on by the F-16C and F-16Ds with block numbers ranging from 25, 30, 32, 40, 42, 50, 52 and 50+/52+ indicating advanced versions beyond Block 50 and 52. The very latest variants are the F-16E and F-16F Block 60.



An F-16F Block 60 of the UAE, aka Desert Falcon,
currently the most advanced F-16 in production
with the Northrop Grumman AN/APG-80 AESA radar
in a photo dated 26th Oct 2011.
Notice the dorsal fairing ( the spine )
and the conformal fuel tanks
 ( the side bulge above the wing root ). Lockheed Martin Photo.

As a result of the USAF's Alternate Fighter Engine Program in 1984, F-16C/Ds from Block 30 or later have a common engine bay and can be powered by either a Pratt and Whitney or a General Electric turbofan. Block numbers ending with a 0 denotes an F-16 with a General Electric engine while those ending with a 2 are fitted with a Pratt and Whitney engine. So a Block 50 and a Block 52 are identical except for the engines.

Operational History



That the F-16 is combat proven is without doubt. The Israeli Air Force (IAF) scored the first F-16 air-to-air combat victory over the Bekaa Valley in April 1981 against a Syrian Mi-8 Helicopter. Barely two months later 8 F-16s of the IAF with F-15s providing top cover, carried out a pre-emptive strike against Saddam Hussain's Osirak nuclear reactor which was then under construction southeast of Bagdad and severely damaged it. It would otherwise have the capability of producing weapons-grade plutonium once operational. The 1982 Lebanon War saw intense fighting between the IAF and the Syrian Air Force and ended with 44 air-to-air kills credited to the IAF F-16s. The Falcons also saw action in Operation Desert Storm, the Balkans, Operations Enduring Freedom, Iraqi Freedom, and in Libya during the Arab Spring period while the most recent " Turkey Shoot " incident over the skies of Syria involved the downing of a Russian Su-24M Fencer by Turkish F-16 fighters.




A pair of Israeli Air Force F-16I Sufa with ECM
and Targeting Pods at Red Flag 09-4 Nellis Nevada. USAF Photo


Old Fighters Never Die ....


Neither do they fade away. They get upgraded! No air-frame would last forever. Maintenance costs escalate as the engine ages. Electronic components become obsolete from the moment they are installed! There are now many older F-16As and Bs and earlier versions of the Cs and Ds serving in the USAF and many other countries that could be upgraded cost effectively to boost their combat performance and extend their service life. In the US particularly, the delays that beset the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter programme, the very fighter that was supposed to be the F-16 replacement, meant that the Air Force had to postpone the retirement of its F-16 fleet and instead allocate funds to upgrade them. The number planned was 300 F-16s but the Sequestration is making that difficult. Elsewhere, some of the international F-16 customers that are embarking on their own upgrade programmes include South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore.



The F-35A Lightning II ( foreground ) would eventually replace
the ageing F-16 ( background ).
Both fighters from Luke AFB. Lockheed Martin Photo.

Interestingly, in recent history, the only US jet fighter that had been produced in greater numbers that the F-16 was the Vietnam War era McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II ( a grand total of 5195 aircrafts ). They have all been retired from active service in the US since 1996 and a small number are converted into QF-4 unmanned aerial target drones. As the number of useable F-4 air-frames dwindle at the Davis-Monthan AFB aircraft boneyard in Arizona, the USAF is beginning to convert old F-16s into QF-16 drones. So old fighters do sometimes have to die ... but for a good cause.



No Pilot! A QF-16 Full Scale Aerial Target from
the 82nd Aerial Targets Squadron flies
 over the Gulf of Mexico during its first unmanned flight
 at Tyndall Air Force Base, Fla., 19th Sep 2013.
 The 82nd ATRS operates the Department of Defense’s
only full-scale aerial target program.
The QF-16 will provide fourth generation fighter representation
of real world threats for testing and training. U.S. Air Force photo


Singapore's F-16 Fleet


Back in 1985, Singapore placed an initial order of 8 F-16A/B Block 15OCU ( Operational Capability Upgrade ) aircrafts to replace the Republic of Singapore Air Force's (RSAF) ageing 1950 era Hawker Hunter fighters. This was done under the Peace Carvin I Foreign Military Sales programme. The aircrafts, four F-16A and four F-16B were delivered in 1988 to Luke Air Force Base, Arizona, where the RSAF conducts its F-16 pilot training with the USAF. The F-16 fighters were not brought back to Singapore until 1990.

This unusual training arrangement was necessary because Singapore, being only slightly bigger than 700 km² in terms of land area, also has an extremely limited sovereign air space for pilot training. Luke AFB belongs to the Air Education and Training Command ( AETC ) and is responsible for training US and foreign F-16, F-15 and F-35 pilots. Occupying about 7700 km² of the Sonoran Desert, it is more than ten times the size of Singapore. Training at Luke AFB enabled the RSAF pilots to learn from and to be benchmarked against the best of the best F-16 operators and the opportunity to participate in large scale, multi-national air combat exercises like the annual Red Flag series at Nellis AFB, Nevada and Eielson AFB, Alaska. It had allowed the RSAF to achieve full operational capability with the single-seat F-16C and twin-seat F-16D within an accelerated time frame of 5 years when the new fighter type was first introduced into service. The current Peace Carvin II training agreement was started in 1993 and is now in its 22nd year. It had be extended a couple of times and will end in 2018, unless further extended!

Other interesting facts about Luke AFB : the millionth F-16 Fighting Falcon flying training hour at Luke Air Force Base was reached on 13th March 2013. F-16s first touched down at Luke AFB on 6th Dec 1982. By March 2013, Luke has graduated 18,164 F-16 fighter pilots. Approximately 2,000 F-16 hours are flown a month by Luke pilots and students.



F-16 fighters from various squadrons based at Luke AFB
fly in formation celebrating the Viper's 30th anniversary
at the base in 2012. The F-16C in the foreground from the
425th Fighter Squadron bearing the RSAF's lion roundel
is part of the Peace Carvin II deteachment.
 
Over the next 15 years, Singapore were to order a total of another 62 advanced F-16C/D block 52/52+ aircrafts in four installments. These are the breakdown.

Peace Carvin II ( 1994 ) 18 aircrafts comprising 8 F-16C and 10 F-16D Block 52
Lease and buy*   ( 199? ) 12 aircrafts comprising 4 F-16C and 8 F-16D Block 52
Peace Carvin III ( 1997 ) 12 aircrafts comprising 10 F-16C and 2 F-16D Block 52
Peace Carvin IV ( 2000 ) 20 aircrafts comprising of 20 F-16D Block 52+

* Direct from Lockheed Martin, not through Foreign Military Sales programme. Only those aircrafts bought under FMS have a Peace ~ designation.

Shortly after being brought back to Singapore in 1990, two of RSAF's F-16A fighters were involved in a mid-air collision over the South China Sea. One of the F-16A was lost. The remaining 7 F-16A/B aircrafts were eventually transferred/donated to Thailand, a friendly neighbor who also operates a small fleet of F-16A/B on 18th Nov 2004. By getting rid of the early model F-16A/B, RSAF became an operator of all advanced block 52/52+ F-16.


RSAF's Block 52 and 52+ Features and Capabilities




RSAF's F-16C and F-16D fighters.


The RSAF's Block 52 and 52+ Falcons, though not of the latest versions, are capable machines nonetheless. They have been extensively modified with Israeli avionics and also upgrades to the onboard mission computer by the local defense company ST Aerospace and are therefore not your usual Block 52/52+.

They are powered by the Pratt and Whitney F100 PW-229 afterburning turbofan with a relatively low bypass ratio of 36%. This jet engine has a weight of 3826 pounds and produces 17800 pounds of dry thrust and 29160 pounds of wet thrust ( with afterburner ). Hence it is said to have a thrust to weight ratio of 7.6 ( 29160/3826 ). First available in 1989, the PW-229 powers the USAF's F-15E Strike Eagle fleet ( twin-engine ) and most of the world's late model F-16C/D fleet ( single engine ). Note that the RSAF's F-15SG fighters have the higher-thrust General Electric F110-GE-129C in place of the Pratt and Whitney F100 engines that power most other F-15s and this will ensure that any potential F100 engine issues would not ground the entire high-end fighter fleet of the RSAF all at one go.

This compact but powerful engine allows the F-16 to achieve a speed of Mach 1.2 at sea level and up to Mach 2.0 at altitude. It has a rate of climb of 50000ft/min and an effective combat radius of 550km carrying 4 x 1000lb bombs in a hi-lo-hi mission profile. Its ferry range is 4220km with drop tanks.

As always, the fire control radar plays a crucial role in determining a fighter aircraft's combat capabilities. The Block 52 Falcons are equipped with the Northrop Grumman AN/APG-68(V)5 long range pulse-doppler radar while the Block 52+ are equipped with the AN/APG-68(V)9 radar. The (V) 9 version has a 33% increase in detection range compared to the older (V)5 version from which it evolved. It is also lighter, cooler and more reliable and less prone to failure and easier to maintain. Best of all, it features a high resolution synthetic aperture radar (SAR) which can generate highly detailed terrain maps which allows the pilot to locate and recognize tactical ground targets from considerable distances. Combined with GPS-guided weapons like the GBU-54 and the JDAM munitions which the RSAF have in its inventory, it allows the F-16 to perform precision strikes against ground targets in all weather conditions.

Using commercial of the shelf components, the AN/APG(V)9 has a processor with 5 times the processing power of its predecessor and 10 times its memory and therefore would be more resistant to electromagnetic interference and countermeasures. Track-while-scan and single target track performance are all improved. Replacing this already capable fire-control radar with an even more advanced Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar similar to the Northrop Grumman AN/APG-80 radar equipping the F-16E/F Block 60 Falcons would be a key part of any future Block 52/52+ upgrade.



The Northop Grumman AN/APG-68 fire control radar sits within the small
and narrow nose cone of the F-16 fighter. NGC Photo

Other important features of the Block 52/52+ F-16 include compatibility with various legacy and advanced targeting add-on pods like the LANTIRN series and its successor the Sniper Series from Lockheed Martin. LANTIRN is the acronym for Low Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infrared for Night and consisted of two separate external pods, the AN/AAQ-13 Navigation Pod and the AN/AAQ-14 Targeting Pod. Such add on pods increases the combat effectiveness of the aircraft by enabling it to fly at low altitudes, in the night, under all weather conditions, to deliver precision strike against surface targets. The RSAF has in its inventory an undisclosed number of LANTIRN and Sniper pods for their fleet of F-16 and F-15.


Upgrading RSAF's F-16 Fleet


Singapore's Minister for Defence Dr Ng Eng Hen revealed in Sep 2013 that the RSAF planned to upgrade its fleet of F-16 Fighting Falcons to modernise their avionics and extend their lifespan. On 13 Jan 2014, the Defense Security Coorporation Agency ( DSCA ) notified the American Congress about a possible Foreign Military Sale to Singapore for an upgrade of F-16 block 52 aircraft and associated equipment, parts, training and logistical support for an estimated cost of USD 2.43 billion. This will involve 60 F-16C/D/D+ aircrafts and an assortment of weapons and equipment including :

70 Active Electronically Scanned Array Radars ( AESA )
70 LN-260 Embedded Global Positioning System / Inertial Navigation Systems ( GPS/INS )
70 Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing Systems ( JHMCS )
70 APX-125 Advanced Identification Friend or Foe ( IFF ) Interrogator / Transponders
3 AIM-9X block II Captive Air Training Missiles ( CATM )
3 TGM-65G Maverick Missiles
4 GBU-50 Guided Bomb Units
5 GBU-38 Joint Direct Attack Munitions ( JDAM )
3 CBU-105 Sensor Fused Weapon ( SFW )
4 GBU-49 Enhanced Paveway ( Laser Guided Munition )
6 GBU-12 Paveway II Guidance Control Units
2 DSU-38 Laser Seekers

And many other items like secure communications equipment, mission computers, ground support equipment and tools, training support. See the DSCA News Release Transmittal 13-67 dated 14th Jan 2014 below for complete details. Notification to Congress is a necessary procedure for any Foreign Military Sales and is by no means a confirmation that the sale is secured. But it is mostly a formality as by this stage in-principle approval must have been given by the regulating authorities already.




DSCA News Release Transmittal 13-67 : Upgrading of RSAF F-16
dated 14th Jan 2014

By 3Q2015, MINDEF further revealed that the upgrading works would commence from 2016 and would be conducted in phases, with the entire process taking 5 or 6 years. Then news emerged earlier this month that the US Department of Defense awarded the F-16 upgrading contract worth USD 914 million to Lockheed Martin Corporation ( LMC ). Before this it was a choice between BAE Systems ( BAE ) or LMC. As the original equipment manufacturer, LMC probably is the most qualified to upgrade the F-16 but BAE also has accumulated credible experience with this aircraft. The upgraded F-16, perhaps it would be called the F-16SG, with its yet to be publically revealed AESA radar selection, will have capabilities similar to LMC's very own upgrade offering- the F-16V.


AESA Radar : SABR or RACR


While LMC has emerged as the appointed prime contractor for RSAF's F-16 upgrade programme, the question of the AESA Radar type is still not made public. Currently there are 2 options and both have similar capabilities.

The Northrop Grumman Scalable Agile Beam Radar ( SABR ) designated AN/APG-83 is the preferred AESA radar offered by LMC for its F-16V and for the upgrade programs for the USAF and the Taiwanese Air Force. It is tipped to be selected by the RSAF as well. It is designed to be retrofitted into F-16s without the need for any structural, power or cooling modifications. Just how scalable is it? A variant of the SABR known as the SABR-Global Strike has been developed for the Rockwell B-1B Lancer supersonic bomber.

Apart from providing the F-16E/F Block 60 Desert Falcon's AN/APG-80 radar, Northrop Grumman Corporation ( NGC ) also manufactures the AN/APG-77 AESA radar for the F-22 Raptor and the AN/APG-81 for the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter and therefore would have had a good history of co-operation with LMC, the prime contractor / systems integrator. Selecting the SABR for RSAF's F-16 could mean a smoother and less risky integration.



Northrop Grumman APG-83 SABR for the F-16 Source : NGC



Close-up view of the SABR AESA fire control radar. Source NGC



The other option is the Raytheon Advanced Combat Radar ( RACR ) touted to be a compact, light weight drop-in upgrade solution for the F-16. It claims 90% commonality with Raytheon's existing range of AESA radars like the APG-63v3 which are installed in RSAF's F-15SG Eagles. Choosing this radar for RSAF's F-16 could translate to cost savings from commonality between the F-15 and F-16 radars. The RACR is the radar selected by the South Koreans for their F-16 upgrade program.



The RACR for the F-16 ( far right ) is the smallest among Raytheon's AESA
offering for the various fighters. From left to right APG-82 ( F-15E upgrade ),
APG-63v3 ( F-15SG ), APG-79 ( F/A-18E/F ) and RACR for F/A18 upgrade ).
 Photo : Raytheon


The Raytheon RACR AESA radar for the F-16. Photo : Raytheon

 The LN-260 Advanced Embedded GPS/INS Navigation System


The LN-260 is Northrop Grumman's high performance, light weight and low cost INS/GPS that ultilises a fibre-optic gyroscope-based inertial navigation sensor assembly together with a Selective Availability Anti-Spoofing Module GPS. The non-dithered, low noise fibre-optic gyroscope technology eliminates self-induced artifacts like acceleration and velocity noise, resulting in superior navigation and Synthetic Aperture Radar stabilization performance, as well as the highest accuracy in target location. It weighs less than 11.79kg, according to NGC.



NGC LN-260 product brochure image.

Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System


The JHMCS is a natural evolution of the Head-Up Display ( HUD ) of the 1970s. It is the fighter pilot's look and shoot targeting device, putting the HUD into the helmet. It combines a magnetic head tracker with a display projected onto the pilot's visor, giving the pilot a targeting device that can be use to aim sensors and weapons at whatever direction he is looking. It synchronises the aircraft's sensors with the pilot's head movements so that they automatically point where the pilot looks. More importantly, the flight and targeting information are displayed on the inside of the helmet visor so that the data is always available no matter where the pilot looks to. The JHMCS is modular and can be configured for day or night sensors. The latest generation JHMCS II and its equivalent even have integrated day and night modes.

The JHMCS gives the wearer previously unimaginable situational awareness at a single glance and when combined with the latest generation AIM-9X and AIM9X2 sidewinder missiles with high off-boresight capability allows the pilot to engage an enemy fighter at  more than 80 degrees away from his axis of movement with only a turn of his head! The JHMCS and the AIM-9X are made for each other and are collectively known as the High Off-Boresight Seeker ( HOBS ) system.

The RSAF supposedly already has in its inventory the Elbit DASH III helmet mounted display and the Python 4 high off-boresight air-to-air missile so the JHMCS is not an entirely new capability. Anyway, the Soviets got that part figured out close to thirty years ago when they integrated a helmet mounted display with the R-73 ( AA-11 Archer ) on the MiG-29 Fulcrum towards the end of the Cold War. The US managed to field the JHMCS only by 2003.



Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System. Photo : Boeing

 

The AN/APX-125 Advanced IFF Transponder / Receiver


As radars become more powerful with greater detection range and with the proliferation of BVR air-to-air missiles, modern day air battles are increasing being fought from stand-off distances. So it is natural that one would also need to rapidly and accurately distinguish between friend and enemy at those astounding BVR distances. Upgrading to a more powerful IFF device with greater detection range and higher reliability is therefore a no brainer.

The BAE Systems AN/APX-125 Advanced Identification Friend or Foe combined interrogator / transponder ( CIT ) system is adapted from the older AN/APX-113 and is specifically developed for the F-16. It enables the warfighter to rapidly differentiate between friendly and potentially hostile forces at distances way beyond visual range. BAE's product brochure states that the APX-125 includes Mode S Elementary and Enhanced Surveillance ( ELS and EHS ) transponder capabilities and Mode 5 interrogator and transponder capabilities. The interrogator subsystem has a detection range beyond 100 nautical miles. Apart from threat identification, IFF has an important role in preventing accidental blue-on-blue incidences.



The AN/APX-125 Advanced IFF combined interrogator / transponder. Photo : BAE


IRST : Glaring Omission?


IRST is the abbreviation for Infra-Red Search and Tract. They are essentially thermal detectors which could be useful in detecting the heat signature of otherwise stealthy aircraft that are difficult to detect by the usual X-Band radars. They are also good for detecting the thermal flare of missile launch from enemy fighters. IRST devices have been staple for Russian and European fighters for the past two decades but their development and implementation on US combat aircrafts have been hampered for eons presumably due to the flawed perception that the American radar technology and missile technology was 2 or 3 generations ahead of that of the Soviet Union, therefore reducing the need for an additional detection device. The F-16 never had one to begin with.

 
With the impending fielding of 5th generation very low observable ( VLO ) fighters from Russia and China and the eventuality that they could be exported to regional countries, it makes sense to future-proof an expensive investment by including an IRST device.


Part of the cover of IHS Jane's Defence Weekly 19th Nov 2014
Vol 51 Issue 47 : J-31 for export!



To be fair the F-15SG Strike Eagles of the RSAF already have an advanced electro-optical sensor suite from Lockheed Martin that includes the Sniper / Pantera targeting pods, Tiger Eyes FLIR for targeting and navigation, and IRST for passive air-to-air detection. So it might not be that critical for the upgraded Falcons not to have it. Still it could be a nice capability to acquire. My guess is that Lockheed Martin's advanced generation IRST21 which had just this year been approved for low rate initial production for the F'A-18E/F Super Hornet might eventually be purchased separately and integrated into RSAF's upgraded F-16 which could take the form of an add-on external pod. Works is still in progress at LMC.


Lockheed Martin's IRST21 is compact and can be mounted on the nose section
of the F/A-18's centerline fuel tank or be placed in an add-on pod. LMC photo.



Why Upgrade?


If the F-16 is such a capable multi-role fighter, why bother to upgrade it at all? Well the most obvious reason to upgrade a platform is to enhance its capabilities even further. Weapons technology is always advancing and previously unavailable options might now be on the table : better sensors, more powerful munitions etc. When the first F-16C/D Block 52 were delivered to the RSAF in 1998, their potential adversaries in the region were the MiG-29N Fulcrum, F-5E Tiger II and F/A-18 Hornet from the Royal Malaysian Air Force ( RMAF ) for which the advance block 52 F-16 are more than a match. By 2007, RMAF added the Su-30MKM and the AA-12 Adder beyond visual range air-to-air missile to its ranks and that represents a tremendous enhancement in capability. Similarly, the Indonesian Air Force was operating a mix of early generation F-16A/B Block 15OCU and F-5E at the turn of the century. Now they still have the F-16A/B but will soon receive additional F-16C/D refurbished to Block 50/52 standard, they have also a fleet of Su-27 Flanker and Su-30MK2 and will be replacing the F-5E with ..... Su-35 Flanker-E aka Super Flanker with thrust vectoring and the works. So unless RSAF upgrades its F-16 fleet, they would soon be rendered obsolete by the Flankers, Advanced Flankers and soon Super Flankers of its immediate neighbours.




You want to fight this? Sukhoi Su-35 with AA-11 and AA-12 AAM.
 Legacy US teens series fighters are completely outclassed by
the advanced Flankers. Photo : Sukhoi



Based on the total cost of USD 2.43 billion, the average cost of upgrading each F-16 will amount to US$40.5 million. This is significantly cheaper than buying newly build F-16Vs which cost about $60 million. Compare that to the F-35A which currently cost US$98 million without the engines ( the total cost of the F-35 is so prohibitively high that it is too vulgar to publish ), you would realize that replacing the F-16 with the F-35 like what the USAF intends to do is not economically feasible for most of America's allies.


F-16V or F-16SG


Will the RSAF's upgraded Falcons be designated the F-16V or will they be unique enough to form a sub-class by themselves, earning a separate F-16SG designation? From past experiences, chances are high that the upgrade would include additional components developed by Singapore's DSO National Laboratories and other non-US aerospace companies.

The upgraded fighters will have advanced fire control radars, advanced navigation, communications and IFF equipment, helmet mounted sights, and the ability to launch advanced precision munitions like laser JDAMs and enhanced Paveway II laser / GPS guided bombs.

Upgrading the F-16s makes a lot of sense as it would postpone the need to acquire the next generation fighter, namely the F-35 JSF, for some years. The early adopters always end up paying more as unit price will drop with later tranches and volume production.

The F-16 is an incredibly well designed and well built aircraft. Although the F-16 Block 50 was originally rated for 8000 Equivalent Flight Hours ( EFH ) of service life, Lockheed Martin has recently completed 25000 hours of simulated flight time on a F-16C Block 50 airframe at its Full Scale Durability Test Facility in Fort Worth, Texas. The FSDT results will eventually be used to extend the service life of the F-16 to 12000 EFH. That's an additional 20 years of service life, assuming on average an annual flight time of 200 hours. So it might not be inconceivable to see the F-16 flying along with the F-15SG and probably the F-35B in 2035 during the SG70 celebrations, maybe even SG75, depending on the cost of the F-35. Time will tell.

Update : The latest developments on the F-16 Block 70/72 and possible shifting of F-16 production to India here.




RSAF's F-16D block 52 with dorsal fairing similar to those seen on
Israeli Air Force F-16Ds. They are rumoured to house the
Israeli Elisra SPS-3000 ECM suite ( self-protection jammer ). 




Another RSAF F-16D block 52 with the dorsal fairing and what looks like
the Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod.








































Friday 4 December 2015

Turkey Shoot : Fencer Down!


Fencer Down ... Hip Down ...



The Sukhoi Su-24M Fencer of the Russian Air Force shown in this 2009 photo is a supersonic all-weather fighter-bomber with variable-sweep wings and tandem seats. A product of the Cold-War, its American counterpart of the same era, though now long retired, is the General Dynamics FB-111 Aardvark. Photo : Wikipedia


No we are not referring to the Marianas Turkey Shoot of June 1944 or the Bekka Valley Turkey Shoot of June 1982. Ten days ago, a Russian Sukhoi Su-24M Fencer fighter-bomber on an bombing mission against Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ( ISIL ) in northern Syria was shot down by F-16 fighters of the Turkish Air Force, after it apparently violated Turkish air space and did not respond to at least ten warnings over a period of five minutes. The aircraft was seen to have gone down in flames. Both crew ejected but one was killed by rebel fighters while the other was rescued.

Meanwhile a Mi-8 Hip helicopter dispatched to the crash site on a search and rescue mission made an unscheduled landing after it developed mechanical issues came under fire by Free Syrian Army rebel forces using supposedly American supplied TOW anti-tank missiles. It was also completely destroyed with one its crew member killed.

This has to be until now the worse day for the Russian Forces operating in Syria in support of the Assad regime. It was an accident waiting to happen, as multiple fast jets, helicopters and drones from various nations fighting ISIL ply the narrow and congested corridors in the boarder zones between Syria and Turkey with impunity. The situation was made more complicated by many previous violations of Turkish air space by Russian fighter jets in the past two months with Turkey warning about tough consequences and new rules of engagement.

According to the Washington Post, it was the first time in more than 63 years when an aircraft from a NATO member had shot down Soviet planes and it represented a serious international incident with the potential for escalation. Russian President Bloodimir Putin was naturally livid, claiming that the bomber was in Syrian air space within 1 km of the boarder when it was shot down, that it was a " stab in the back ".

Now, Russia has the perfect excuse to deploy advanced air defense missiles and more fighter jets to Syria, right at the doorsteps of NATO's southern boarder ... all thanks to the trigger-happiness of one madman Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan.


The Syrian Morass


As the World knows, the popular Syrian uprising against their oppressive government lead by President Bashar al-Assad which began in the spring of 2011 quickly deteriorated into an all out civil war with multiple factions fighting the government forces as well as each other. Many of these factions are divided along ethnic or religious lines and are backed by various power players in the Middle-East like Turkey and Saudi Arabia while others have links to extremist organisations like al-Qaeda. The more moderate rebel militias received support from the US and the European Union. The Assad regime meanwhile received support from Russia, Iraq and even direct assistance from Iran in the form of Hezbollah fighters and military advisors on the ground. The situation became even more complicated by late 2012 when the Kurds in northern Syria, initially neutral, got dragged into the conflict as well.

It was unfortunate that all those events were happening at a time when the US forces was being drawn down in neighbouring Iraq. With the Iraq Army militarily weak and the command and government riddled with corruption, the Sunni insurgent group which called itself the Islamic State of Iraq ( ISI ) started to seize territory in northern and western Iraq, culminating in the capture of the City of Mosul. Lead by a core of former Ba'athist military and intelligence officers who served under the Saddam regime, ISI also established itself over the border in Syria as well, fighting both the Assad forces and the rebel forces simultaneously.

No doubt aided by the large quantities of weapons captured from the impotent Iraqi Army, many of which were donated by the US, the Islamic insurgents proved themselves to be a capable fighting force and rapidly gained territory in Syria. By April 2013, with large swathes of land straddling Iraq in the east and Syria in the west under its control, the organisation declared itself the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria ( ISIS ), sometimes also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ( ISIL ), Islamic State ( IS ), or simply Daesh to the Arab speaking world.

ISIL has been labeled a terror organisation by the United Nations and many other countries around the world. It imposed strict Islamic law on the populace in the regions that it occupied and carried out hideous crimes against humanity including destruction of heritage sites, torture, rape, summary executions, beheadings and even ethnic cleansing. Internet savvy experts then upload videos of such criminal acts online as propaganda and to recruit fighters, many of whom were foreigners seeking adventure and glory. Funding came from various sources including the sale of oil and refined petroleum products, sale of looted antiques from state museums and institutions, tax imposed on the populace and businesses, ransom moneys paid by kidnapped victims ... you get the idea.



Mesopotamian Morass as of 18th Nov 2015 : Pink - Iraqi Government controlled ; Grey - ISIL ; Dark Yellow - Iraqi Kurdistan ; Lighter Yellow - Syrian Kurdistan ; Light Orange : Syrian Government ; Green - Syrian Rebels ; White - Ai-Nusra Front ; Blue - Hezbollah ; Deep Orange - Lebanon Government. Wikipedia 


Coalition Air Campaign Against ISIL 


While the United States was contented to initially providing non-lethal aid to the Syrian rebels at the beginning of the civil war, it soon became obvious that more had to be done for the rebels to at least have a remote chance of toppling Assad or warding off ISIL. Weapons, ammunition and training for moderate rebels soon followed. The gruesome beheading of several foreign journalists and aid workers by ISIL last year ultimately resulted in the commencement of air strikes in Syria on 22nd Sep 2014 by a coalition of nations which included the US, France, Canada, Australia, Turkey and several Arab League nations including Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Jordan, Morocco and the United Arab Emirates.

Obama and his Air Force brass were then quite confident of crushing ISIL within a matter of weeks with their bombing sorties but one year on they weren't so sure anymore. More and more aircraft types were quietly added to the strike fleet, including the A-10C Warthog and even the AH-64D Apache, but ISIL remained elusive and resilient. Let no one be deluded to believe that a few bombs dropped over a vast desert could actually defeat an insurgent group like ISIL without putting boots on the ground. Anyway, one after another, the various coalition partners lost their focus and withdrew their tiny fleets, leaving the US to shoulder the main burden of the air campaign. Jordan stopped contributing after its F-16 pilot was captured and burnt alive, Canada terminated its efforts after a change in government, the Arab League got distracted by a new conflict in Yemen.... . So that set the stage for the Russians to get their hands dirty too.


Russian Deployment To Syria


Russia had always kept close ties with Syria for as long as anyone could remember. Syria is its strategic partner in the Middle-East providing Russia with a naval base in the Mediterranean Sea. Syria is also an important client for Russian arms export, generating billions of dollars worth of hard cash for Putin. In return, Syria gets political support from Moscow at the international level, to shield it from any accusations of wrong doings or misdeeds. It is sort of a symbiotic relationship.

If the Assad regime goes, Moscow could lose its foothold in the Middle-East as the next government may not necessarily be Russia-leaning. So I suppose Putin finally decided that the time was ripe for direct Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war, one year after the US lead bombing campaign achieved hardly any results.

The most amazing thing about the Russian military deployment to Syria was no doubt the rapidness with which its was implemented when the order was given. The first indications of a possible Russian deployment came in September when a sudden increase in military air transport to the Syrian port city of Latakia was noted. Within days, the infrastructure to accommodate entire air wings were erected, complete with modular living quarters, control tower, helipads and the works. A ground protection force of marine commandos and T-90 main battle tanks and armoured personnel carriers were also deployed.

What followed was the deployment of close to 40 combat aircrafts of various types : 4 Su-30SM Flanker, 12 Su-24M Fencer, 4 Su-34 Fullback, 12 Su-25 Frog Foot and about a dozen helicopters including gunships.




Russian Air Force Su-25 Frog Foot ground attack aircraft at Hmeimim Air Base 2015. Photo Russian Defense Ministry.




Russian Air Force Su-34 Fullback fighter-bomber with its distinctive tandem seats, canards and stinger. Source : Wikipedia




Su-30SM Multi-role Fighter with short range air-to-air missiles. Source United Aircraft Corporation


The Su-24 is an ageing Soviet era supersonic fighter bomber with variable-sweep wings designed in the sixties, the equivalent of the General Dynamics FB-111 Aardvark of the USAF. The Su-25 is a dedicated ground attack aircraft very similar to the Fairchild Republic A-10 Warthog. The Su-30SM is an advance Flanker variant capable of both air-superiority and attack roles. The Su-34 is Russia's newest fighter-bomber meant to replace the Su-24 and Syria is the first operational deployment of this aircraft type. So, all in all, a small contingent which is mainly geared towards the attack role with only nominal fighter top cover, not surprising as the insurgents the Russians are fighting have no air assets of their own to threaten the Russian aircrafts.


Russian Anti-ISIL Air Campaign


All through October and much of November, the Russian aircrafts happily bombed what they insisted were ISIL targets. They authorities claimed that by 30th Nov, exactly 2 months since the commencement of the Russian air campaign, the air force had generated 2300 sorties and bombed 4100 terrorist targets, exceeding in just one month more that what the US and its allies did in a whole year. Of course to be fair the Russians operated from an airbase within Syria and transit time to the targets are very short while the American lead effort have to utilize air bases much further, like Incirlik in Turkey, or even in Europe.

Unfortunately, the Russians have been criticized for bombing the moderate anti-Assad rebels in western Syria rather than concentrating on ISIL strongholds in eastern Syria. They also attacked Turkey affiliated Turkmen rebels along the Syrian-Turkey boarder and that created friction with Ankara. To make matters worse, the Russians have not been exactly mindful of the Turkish airspace when conducting their bombing raids near the boarder. More than once, Russian bombers have strayed across the boundary into Turkish airspace. Despite many warnings that have been issued and rules of engagement ( ROE ) that have been revised, the Russians continued their careless patrols, seemingly oblivious to the Turkish threats to have violating aircraft shot down.


Recent Shoot Down Incidences


Since the beginning of the Syrian conflict, there has been numerous boarder incidences resulting in the shooting down of aircrafts belonging to both Turkey and Syria. On 22 Jun 2012, a Turkish RF-4E Phantom II reconnaissance jet was shot down by Syria after it unintentionally strayed into Syrian air space. The fighter crashed into the sea and both pilots died. This lead to Turkey revising its ROE stating that it would consider all "military elements" approaching from Syria an enemy threat and would act accordingly.



Turkish Air Force RF-4E serial number 69-7514 is an ex-Luftwaffe Phantom ( German serial 35+67 ) transferred to Turkey in 1993. A similar aircraft was shot down by Syria in 2012. Photo : Turkish Air Force
 On 16 Sep 2013 it was payback time when a Syrian Mi-17 helicopter ventured just one mile into Turkish territory when it was shot down by a Turkish F-16C. It crashed one kilometer inside the Syrian boarder.

The next major incident occurred on 23 Mar 2014 when a Syrian MiG-23 Flogger strayed just a little into Turkey and promptly got hosed down, again by F-16 fighters.



A Russian MiG-23 Flogger armed with AA-7 and AA-8 air-to-air missiles. A similar Syrian aircraft was shot down by the Turks in 2014. Source RSK MiG.

So, as one can observe, these boarder zones are extremely dangerous for aircrafts with both sides being highly on the edge just waiting for the other to commit a small mistake and have an excuse for taking down the opponent. Turkey especially, has been acting tough and had repeatedly made good their threats of shooting down violators of their sovereign air space.


Latest Shooting Down Incident


On 24 Nov 2015, a Russian Air Force Su-24M Fencer bomber operating out of Syria's Hmeimim Air Field was on a bombing mission near the Turkish boarder when according to Turkey, it strayed into Turkish air space to a depth of 2.19km, an incursion that lasted for a mere 17 seconds. It was fired upon by a F-16 fighter when it failed to respond to at least 10 repeated warnings within a 5 minute period to change course. These warnings were of course transmitted on radio over guard frequency. Guard is the aircraft emergency frequency reserved for communications when aircrafts are in distress or during an emergency. The frequencies are 121.5MHz for civilian aircrafts ( aka International air distress or VHF Guard ) and 243.0MHz for military aircrafts ( aka Military Air Distress or UHF Guard ).

Russia however, denied that the Fencer ever ventured into the said Turkish territory, a wedge-shaped piece of land jutting southwards into Syria measuring about 6km at its widest. It maintained that the bomber was returning to Hmeimim and flew within 1 kilometer of the Syrian boarder at all times when it was shot at an altitude of 6000m. Instead Russia counter-claimed that the Turkish F-16 actually made a 2km incursion into Syrian air space when it was attacking the Fencer.




Turkey Defense Ministry's map of Su-24's flight path. Source : Wikipaedia




Russian Defense Ministry's map of the Su-24 flight path. Red line - Su-24, blue line - F-16. Source Wikipaedia



Google Earth Map : the distance between the two red markers denoting the estimated entry and exit points of the Su-24 over Turkish sovereignty is ..... 2.20km!


Just looking at the above maps, I would think that the Russia version is too conveniently neat to be convincing. It could be either doctored or else over simplified. The Turkish version with slightly irregular flight paths are more believable.

What probably happened was the Fencer was over Syrian soil AFTER its brief incursion into Turkey when it was struck by an air-to-air missile fired by the F-16. It would later emerge that the Fencer pilots claimed they did not receive any warnings over the radio and neither did they see the missile coming at them. In other words, they didn't know what hit them.

This could be possible as according to Wikipaedia, the Su-24M's antiquated R-862M VHF/UHF radio may not be able to monitor the military guard frequency without optional equipment which may not have been installed. As the Fencer is a fairly large aircraft with poor visibility from the cockpit, the pilots may not see an incoming missile especially when fired upon from the rear. Being an old aircraft it probably lacks a Missile Approach Warning System ( MAWS ) to guard against heat seeking missiles like the AIM-9X Sidewinder carried by the F-16. Radar Warning Receivers ( RWR ) may or may not provide timely warning against radio-frequency homing missiles as there may be latency between detection and threat identification.

After their plane was hit, both pilots bailed out but were fired upon by Turkmen rebels as they were descending in their parachutes. The flight commander Lieutenant Colonel Oleg Anatolyevich Peshkov was killed by ground fire while his navigator Captain Konstantin Murakhtin survived and was eventually rescued by Russian and Syrian SAR teams. Peshkov was posthumously awarded the title Hero of the Russian Federation while Murakhtin and the naval commando who perished in the helicopter attack during the rescue attempt was given the Order of Courage.



The remains of Lieutenant Colonel Oleg Anatolyevich Peshkov, Hero of the Russisn Federation, arriving at Chkalovsky Airfield near Moscow. Ivan really knows how to dress warm and look good, even during times of sorrow. Source : Russian Defense Ministry.


A Case of Intractable Trigger Happiness?


Could this unfortunate downing of the Fencer be avoided? Absolutely! When accidents happen, they usually have multiple factors contributing to the final outcome. In this case both Russia and Turkey could have done more to prevent just such an event.

Firstly, Russia should not have sent its bombers so close to a volatile boarder. Patrolling 1 km from the boundary as claimed is stupid. Ever heard of stand-off ordnance? Even if you have to target insurgents near or at the boarder, it could be done at stand-off distances and Russia has no shortage of stand-off weapons, and was even willing to use cruise missiles fired from the Caspian Sea 1500km away even though it had absolute air-superiority over Syrian skies.

Secondly, in the event the need to fly near the boarder becomes necessary, at least ensure the aircrafts are equipped with the appropriate communications and navigation equipment and the flight crew properly trained to use them. A military aircraft unable to monitoring Military Guard frequency is just unbelievable, what ever the reason. And the upgraded Su-24M are supposed to be GLONASS equipped.

Nobody in the free world believes what Russia says anymore, especially after their denial about direct intervention in Crimea and eastern Ukraine despite glaring evidences indicating otherwise, like the capture of Russian paratroopers deep inside Ukrainian territory. So the Russian claim about the Su-24 never venturing beyond 1km of the Syrian boarder is probably false. In any case, would Turkey dare to shoot down a Russian combat aircraft flying over Syrian territory without provocation? Rather unlikely, I would say, even though the Turkish Air Force is quite powerful, being the world's third largest operator of the F-16 fighter ( with close to 300 mainly advance block 50 version ) after the US and Israel, it is still no match for the might of the Russian Air Force. So I would take the Turkish data as closer to the truth and it indicated that the Fencer violated Turkish air space for a total of 17 seconds and for a flight distance of just 2.19km.

To shoot down an aircraft after such a brief incursion which in all likelihood could be unintentional, some kind of navigational error or a momentary lapse of concentration on the pilot or navigator's part, can only be labeled as extreme trigger happiness if not murder.

Frankly, there are other less lethal ways to resolve this type of boarder incidences including intercepting and escorting the offending aircraft back to where it should belong. Flying along side and making visual contact when radio communications could not be established might be necessary. If all else failed, firing a short burst of cannon rounds across the bow usually would get the attention of the offending aircraft. Ripping it out of the sky should be the last resort.

Turkish President Erdogan had refused to apologise to Russia after the shooting incident, insisting that Turkey reserves the right of self-defense in the event of violations of territory, which in principle is true. Putin on the other hand, believed that the unprovoked shooting is a stab in the back by a supposed ally in the fight against terror. He was so incensed that he accused Turkey of profiting from the illegal trading of oil with ISIL, even claiming direct involvement of Erdogan's family members, and therefore had a reason to protect ISIL oil infrastructure. The spat has now escalated even further as Putin continues to trade verbal blows with Erdogan piling on one insult after another.



Back Stabbing! Satirical illustration from the Sputnik News Agency's
Japanese website depicting Erdogan sneaking up on the Bear.
The Japanese words read TERORISUTO ( terrorist ).



The Aftermath 


As a consequence of the downing of the Fencer, Russia has immediately taken steps to strengthen its air defense capabilities in Syria.

First, the missile cruiser Moskva ( ex-Slava ), flagship of the Russian Navy Black Sea Fleet, an 11490 ton monster of a warship armed with a total of 64 ( 8 x 8 rotary launchers ) SA-N-6 Grumble long-range surface-to-air missiles was dispatched to the waters off the Syrian coast to provide an air defense umbrella for the Russian strike aircrafts. The SA-N-6, also known as the S-300F Fort, is the navalised version of the S-300P ( NATO reporting name SA-10 Grumble ) land based anti-aircraft missile. It has a maximum effective range of 95 miles, enough to cover large portions of northern Syria and southern Turkey.



The Moskva, flagship of the Black Sea Fleet with 8 x 8 SA-N-6 Grumble long-range SAM in a 2009 photo. Wikipaedia



Within three days of the downing of the Fencer, Moscow also deployed its most advanced air defense system to Hmeimem Air Base - the S-400 Triumf ( NATO reporting name SA-21 Growler ) surface-to-air missile. Depending on the missile type used, the maximum range for the S-400 system is up to 400km. Although Russia says that the S-400 systems deployed in Syria are not for sale and would be returned to Russia once their mission is over, we know that Russian words count for nothing. I am quite sure the S-400 will stay put in Syria for a very long time, as its is extremely easy to claim that the mission is not yet over, or just simply provoke another incident or shoot down your own aircraft and blame it on enemy fire or whatever, its been done before.



Two S-400 Triumf transporter-erector-launcher units ( Left and Centre ) protected by what looks like a Pantsir S1 air defense system ( Right ) at Hmeimem Air Base in Syria. Source : Sputnik

Also, for the first time since their deployment in Syria, the Su-34 Fullbacks are conducting their bombing raid carrying ground attack ordnance and air-to-air missiles for self-defense. Russia is making it clear to Turkey that any future downing incidences would be met with immediate and lethal respond. The Fullbacks are basically upsized Flankers with a tremendous increase in range and carrying capacity and although optimized for bombings can be used for air combat as well. Below is a video clip from RT showing the Su-34 with the medium-range R-27 ( AA-10 Alamo ) on centre pylon and the short-range R-73 ( AA-11 Archer ) air-to-air missile on outer pylon, in addition to OFAB-500 dumb bombs on the undercarriage and KAB-500 TV-guided aerial bombs ( with glass covered tip ) at the innermost pylon. These spanking new bombers on their first ever combat deployment deserve a separate coverage / article on their own!




In the near future, Russia will likely increase the number of Su-30SM fighters deployed in Syria to ultimately provide fighter escort to all of its bombing sorties especially those conducted near the Turkish boarder or establish some kind of combat air patrol.

Russia also started economic sanctions against Turkey, with Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev signing a decree prohibiting the importation of food from Turkey and banning chartered flights between the two countries. The ban would apply to produce like fruits and vegetables, poultry and salt and will commence on 1st Jan 2016. Russian citizens have also been advice to refrain from travelling to Turkey unless absolutely necessary by their foreign ministry.

Meanwhile, the skies over Syria becomes ever more crowded and dangerous, with the Royal Air Force now commencing air strikes against ISIL targets within Syrian territory ....



Russian Air Force Su-24M in a 2009 photo. Wikipaedia



Russian Air Force Su-24M at Latakia, Syria, 2015. Wikipaedia



Su-24M taking off at Hmeimim Air Base. Source Russian Defense Ministry